The short version of Tuftsin analog fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2026-03-26. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Pharmacokinetic data are limited. Like most short peptides, Selank is vulnerable to plasma and tissue peptidases, and its measured half-life in circulation is short, on a minutes scale. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail slows this degradation but does not eliminate it. Intranasal administration is the route described in most reports, with absorption through the nasal mucosa and a hypothesized path into the central nervous system that avoids the blood-brain barrier. Direct measurements of human brain exposure are unavailable, so distribution claims rest on inference from animal work.
Clinical evidence comes mainly from small studies conducted in Russia, several of which were open-label or lacked robust blinding. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, changes in attention measures, and effects on asthenic states following illness. Sample sizes are typically in the tens of participants, and independent replication outside the region is scarce. Reviews published in English generally note the limited methodological quality of the underlying trials. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful effects under rigorous conditions remains unresolved.
Proposed mechanisms center on modulation of the GABA system, but no single molecular target has been confirmed. Rodent studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and in the turnover of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in several brain regions. Increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor have also been described after repeated administration. These findings come largely from animal models, and the degree to which they describe human neurochemistry remains an open question. The mechanism is best characterized as multi-system and not fully resolved.
Enzymatic stability motivates the extra three residues at the carboxyl end. Native tuftsin is cleaved quickly by circulating aminopeptidases and carboxypeptidases, which limits its duration of action and its usefulness as a tool compound. Extending the chain with proline-rich segments is a common design tactic because proline constrains the backbone and slows proteolysis. The same Pro-Gly-Pro motif appears in other Russian-developed peptides of the era. Whether the full seven-residue chain is required for activity, or whether it acts mainly as a prodrug releasing tuftsin, remains unresolved.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its four N-terminal residues reproduce tuftsin, a tetrapeptide fragment of the immunoglobulin heavy chain, while the C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is a synthetic addition. The peptide has a molecular mass near 752 daltons and carries a net positive charge at physiological pH because of the arginine and lysine side chains. Published indexes list it under the name Selank and the sequence abbreviation TKPRPGP. Solid-phase peptide synthesis is the standard production route for research quantities.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Route studied | Intranasal | Predominant route in published reports |
| Circulation stability | Short, minutes scale | Peptidases cleave it; the tail slows the process |
| Analytical method | RP-HPLC with mass spectrometry | Used for identity and purity assessment |
| Reported outcome domains | Anxiety and cognitive measures | Derived from small, mostly regional trials |
| Regulatory status | Marketed in Russia | Availability outside that market is limited |
The compound was designed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences during the 1980s and 1990s. The stated design goal was to retain the immunomodulatory and central nervous system activity attributed to tuftsin while improving resistance to enzymatic breakdown. Adding a proline-rich tail to the short parent peptide was a deliberate strategy, because proline residues restrict the conformations available to many peptidases. The same laboratory produced Semax, an ACTH fragment analog, and both compounds were developed in parallel as short, enzymatically stabilized peptides intended for intranasal use.
Selank is not a naturally occurring peptide and has no known endogenous counterpart in human physiology. Russian-language sources frequently call it TP-7, while English-language sources use the name Selank almost exclusively. Database indexing is uneven, partly because early reports appeared in regional journals that are not widely cataloged. Some summaries describe the material as a tuftsin analog and others as a synthetic heptapeptide; the labels overlap rather than conflict. Citing the primary sequence resolves ambiguity more reliably than the research or trade name alone.
Identity and purity are usually assessed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, with mass spectrometry used to confirm molecular mass and sequence information. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping may supplement these methods. Certified reference standards are scarce, and many commercial lots are sold as research chemicals without a pharmacopoeial monograph. Regulatory treatment differs by country: Selank is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while in the European Union and the United States it is not an approved drug and may fall under research-chemical or unapproved-product frameworks.
Selank is a hydrophilic peptide and dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers. The lyophilised powder is typically a white to off-white solid. Because short peptides are prone to hydrolysis and oxidation, handling benefits from limiting exposure to heat, moisture and strong light. Working solutions are commonly prepared in sterile water or saline, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided to reduce aggregation and loss of activity. These practices reflect general laboratory convention rather than published stability specifications.
Regulatory treatment varies by jurisdiction. In Russia the compound is a registered prescription product, while in the European Union and the United States it is generally handled as a research chemical without a marketing authorization. Suppliers therefore operate outside pharmaceutical oversight, and buyers rely on supplier documentation for purity and identity claims. Chain of custody and third-party testing are the main verification tools. Analysts note that the absence of a pharmacopoeial monograph for research-grade material limits standardization across vendors.
Purity assessment relies mainly on reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. Because the peptide lacks a strong chromophore, detection often uses backbone absorbance near 214 nm. Identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry, typically electrospray ionization or matrix-assisted laser desorption, comparing the measured mass against the expected value. Amino acid analysis can verify composition after acid hydrolysis. Diastereomer content and residual counterions are reported less often, although both can influence biological assays.
Published clinical evidence is limited. Most controlled trials were conducted in Russia, enrolled modest numbers of participants, and appeared in Russian-language journals, which restricts independent verification. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, improved attention and memory measures, and changes in fatigue ratings. Reviews written in English note methodological limitations such as small samples and inconsistent endpoints. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful benefit relative to established anxiolytics is therefore an open question rather than an established finding.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was designed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences as a structural analogue of tuftsin, a naturally occurring tetrapeptide fragment of the immunoglobulin heavy chain. The added Pro-Gly-Pro tail was intended to slow enzymatic degradation and extend biological activity. In Russia it is registered as an anxiolytic nasal preparation, while regulators elsewhere have not approved it for clinical use.
Proposed mechanisms centre on modulation of the GABAergic system, with reports of altered expression of genes related to GABA-A receptor subunits and changed monoamine turnover. Some studies describe inhibition of enkephalinase, the enzyme that degrades endogenous enkephalins, which may prolong opioid peptide signalling. Effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and on cytokine expression have also been reported. These findings come largely from animal models and small human studies, and the precise primary target remains unresolved.
A street in Tirana, Albania, located directly outside the Albanian Parliament and formerly known as Rruga Punëtorët e Rilindjes, was renamed after Bush a few days before he made the first-ever visit by an American president to Albania in June 2007. In 2012, Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves awarded Bush the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana for his work in expanding NATO. Two elementary schools are named after him: one in Stockton Unified School District in Stockton, California, and one in Wylie Independent School District in St. Paul, Texas, in the Dallas-Fort Worth area.
== Epidemiology == Between 0.1% and 0.8% of people are affected. The disease is most common in Northern European countries, and per observations in the UK, is least frequently seen in people of Afro-Caribbean descent. Although the ratio of male to female disease is reportedly 3:1, many rheumatologists believe the number of women with AS is underdiagnosed, as most women tend to experience milder cases of the disease. The majority of people with AS, including 95 per cent of people of European descent with the disease, express the HLA-B27 antigen and high levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) in the blood. In 2007, a team of researchers discovered two genes that may contribute to the cause of AS: ARTS-1 and IL23R. Together with HLA-B27, these two genes account for roughly 70 percent of the overall number of cases of the disease.
Charles N. McEwen; Barbara S. Larsen (1997) Electrospray ionization on quadrupole and magnetic-sector mass spectrometers, in Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry: fundamentals, instrumentation, and applications. Richard B. Cole (Ed.) Wiley. 177–202. Sarah Trimpin; David E. Clemmer; Barbara S. Larsen (2010) Snapshot, Conformation, and Bulk Fragmentation of Polymeric Architectures using ESI–IMS–MS, in Ion Mobility Spectrometry–Mass Spectrometry: Theory and Applications. CRC Press. 215–235.
=== Leak === On September 19, the Half-Life 2 source code was obtained by a German hacker, Axel Gembe, who had infiltrated Valve's internal network months earlier. According to Gembe, he shared it with another person, who leaked the code online in early October. Fans soon compiled a playable version of Half-Life 2, revealing how unfinished it was. The leaks damaged morale at Valve and slowed development. Fans also provided Valve with the details of people involved in the leaks. In March 2004, Gembe contacted Newell, saying he was a fan and had not acted maliciously. Newell worked with the FBI to invite Gembe to a fake job interview, planning to have him arrested in the United States; however, police arrested him in Germany. In November 2006, Gembe was sentenced to two years' probation. Valve implemented new policies to protect against leaks, such as requiring journalists to attend their office to play it before release.
It is approved as an antimanic and antiseizure in Japan as well. In UK, valproate is approved for bipolar mania and epilepsy, and both valproate and divalproex are approved, although divalproex sodium is known as valproate semisodium. Valproate's precise mechanism of action is unclear. Proposed mechanisms include affecting GABA levels, blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, inhibiting histone deacetylases, and increasing LEF1. Valproic acid is a branched short-chain fatty acid (SCFA), a derivative of valeric acid. Valproate was originally synthesized in 1881 and came into medical use in 1962. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2023, it was the 160th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3 million prescriptions.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Fed-batch fermentation is a variation of batch fermentation where some of the ingredients are added during the fermentation. This allows greater control over the stages of the process. In particular, production of secondary metabolites can be increased by adding a limited quantity of nutrients during the non-exponential growth phase. Fed-batch operations are often sandwiched between batch operations.
=== Tuberculosis === The primary use of isoniazid is as first-line treatment for latent and active infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB). In persons with isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, drug regimens based on isoniazid have a high rate of failure. In the United States, the indications for isoniazid use approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) include:.
Several forms (vitamers) of vitamin D exist, with the two major forms being vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). The common-use term "vitamin D" refers to both D2 and D3, which were chemically characterized, respectively, in 1931 and 1935. Vitamin D3 was shown to result from the ultraviolet irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol. Although a chemical nomenclature for vitamin D forms was recommended in 1981, alternative names remain commonly used. Chemically, the various forms of vitamin D are secosteroids, meaning that one of the bonds in the steroid rings is broken. The structural difference between vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 lies in the side chain: vitamin D2 has a double bond between carbons 22 and 23, and a methyl group on carbon 24. Vitamin D analogues have also been synthesized. US dietary guides generally assume that all of a person's vitamin D is taken orally, given the potential for insufficient sunlight exposure due to urban living, cultural choices for the amount of clothing worn when outdoors, and use of sunscreen because of concerns about safe levels of sunlight exposure, including the risk of skin cancer.
=== War on cartels (2025–present) === The war on cartels is a hybridization of the war on terror and the war on drugs that describes the most aggressive and militarized phase of US foreign and security policy toward transnational criminal organizations, particularly active beginning in 2025 and into early 2026. Some analysts have noted that this war is moving away from previous paradigms of the war on drugs to become an official war. Unlike the law enforcement–centered efforts of previous decades, this phase is characterized by treating drug cartels not merely as ordinary criminal groups, but as national security threats equivalent to insurgent or terrorist organizations, thereby authorizing the use of high-level military capabilities. As a result, this strategy represents an operational and legal hybridization, as it merges the core objective of the war on drugs—the interdiction of narcotics flows and the dismantling of illicit economies—with the combat doctrine of the war on terror, shifting the paradigm from civilian law enforcement toward military counterinsurgency. By classifying these organizations as existential threats and narcoterrorist entities, the US legitimizes the use of tools traditionally reserved for enemy combatants, such as drone strikes, offensive cyber warfare, and extraterritorial special operations, including Operation Southern Spear, under the premise that cartels are no longer simple criminal groups to be arrested, but rather paramilitary structures that erode state sovereignty and require an asymmetric warfare response to be neutralized.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== Other countries ==== As of June 2008, meloxicam was registered for long-term use in cats in Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. In the United Kingdom, meloxicam is licensed for use in cats, guinea pigs, horses, and livestock including pigs and cattle.
In earlier manuscript versions, the figure is surrounded by numbers and phrases which indicate where in the accompanying treatise a healer might find a particular helpful procedure. For instance, in a German Wound Man now in the Wellcome Library, London (MS 49), the spider crawling up the man's thigh is labelled "Wo eine spynne gesticht, 20" ("When a spider bites, 20"), directing the reader to paragraph 20 of the book for an appropriate cure. Similarly, written along the large spear piercing the figure's left side and penetrating into his stomach is the legend "So der gross viscus wund wirt, 14" ("If the large intestine is injured, 14"). Turning to the corresponding cure number 14, the reader finds:
== History == The first O' Coffee Club outlet opened in Holland Village, Singapore in 1991. During its founding, it was Singapore's first gourmet coffee house and the company had their own roasting facilities located in the first outlet. The chain has expanded locally and regionally since then and currently has outlets in Malaysia and Indonesia. Central production facilities were established since its expansion to ensure product quality.
== History == The racemic parent compound racemorphan was first described in a Swiss and US patent application from Hoffmann-La Roche in 1946 and 1947, respectively; a patent was granted in 1950. A resolution of the two isomers of racemorphan with tartaric acid was published in 1952, and dextromethorphan was successfully tested in 1954 as part of US Navy and CIA-funded research on nonaddictive substitutes for codeine. Dextromethorphan was approved by the FDA in 1958 as an over-the-counter antitussive. As had been initially hoped, dextromethorphan was a solution for some of the problems associated with the use of codeine phosphate as a cough suppressant, such as sedation and opiate dependence, but like the dissociative anesthetics phencyclidine and ketamine, dextromethorphan later became associated with nonmedical use. During the 1960s and 1970s, dextromethorphan became available in an over-the-counter tablet form by the brand name Romilar. In 1973, Romilar was taken off the shelves after a burst in sales because of frequent misuse. A few years later, products with an unpleasant taste were introduced (such as Vicks-44, and Dextrotussion), but later the same manufacturers began producing products with a better taste. The advent of widespread internet access in the 1990s allowed users to rapidly disseminate information about dextromethorphan, and online discussion groups formed around use and acquisition of the drug.
This is how gallstones form when a small piece of calcium gets coated with either cholesterol or bilirubin and the bile crystallises and forms a gallstone. The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store and release bile, or gall. Bile is released into the small intestine in order to help in the digestion of fats by breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones. After the fat is absorbed, the bile is also absorbed and transported back to the liver for reuse.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Reports describe effects on GABA-A receptor expression, monoamine turnover, and neurotrophic factor levels. These are proposed mechanisms drawn mainly from animal models. No single molecular target has been established.
Intranasal delivery is the route described in most published work. It is used because the peptide is degraded quickly once it reaches circulation. Direct evidence of brain penetration in humans is lacking.
Most trials are small, regionally concentrated, and often lack rigorous blinding or placebo control. Independent replication is limited. Reviews in English generally rate the evidence as preliminary.
Selank is a seven-amino-acid peptide built from the tuftsin sequence plus a Pro-Gly-Pro tail. It is produced by chemical synthesis rather than extracted from a natural source. The free peptide is usually supplied as a lyophilised powder or in an aqueous formulation.